Language Acquisition

Two of the top researchers in language acquisition and instruction for English language learners (ELLs) are Stephen Krashen and Virginia Collier. Stephen Krashen is known for his language acquisition hypotheses and Virginia Collier is known for her Prism model.

Stephen Krashen Three Hypotheses

Stephen Krashen three hypotheses are: acquisition verses learning, comprehensible input, and affective filter. The acquisition verses learning hypothesis states adults try to “learn” language skills through memorizing rules from a textbook; where children on the other hand, “acquire” language skills through natural and meaningful social interactions (ACE, 2014). It has been proven that acquiring language natural and meaningful social interactions is the most effective (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013). The comprehensible input hypothesis states ELLs benefit greatly when teachers present content in the “second language at the level of comprehension of the students’ first language” (ACE, 2014). An educator can increase students’ language acquisition and understanding by adding additional context and utilizing students’ background knowledge and first language. This can be done, through the use of: visuals, props, facial expressions, and gestures (ACE, 2014). Krashen’s third hypothesis suggests the lower a student’s affective filter (or anxiety) the more likely they are to acquire new langue skills. Create an inviting and accepting environment for all, increases language acquisition (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013).

Virginia Collier Prism Model 

Virginia Collier is known for her Prism Model where students’ academic development, language development, cognitive development, and social and cultural processes are intertwined together and foster ELLs overall success (Thomas & Collier, 1997). All four components are needed for a student to reach their fullest potential. The sociocultural process is the center of the prism and includes individual variables such as: self-esteem, anxiety, home life, community influences, socioeconomic status, and other affective factors (Thomas & Collier, 1997). Language development, one of the three sides of the prism, refers to students’ oral and written skills such as: phonology, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse, and paralinguistics. The stronger students’ native language proficiency skills the more proficient they will be in their second language (Thomas & Collier, 1997). Academic Development reflects academic skills in the content areas of: language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies for each grade level. Academic comprehension transfers from one language to another. It is most efficient to teach academic content through students’ native language. This way ELLs don’t fall behind their native English speaking peers in the area of academic knowledge (Thomas & Collier, 1997). Lastly, cognitive development refers to a, “natural, subconscious process that occurs developmentally from birth to the end of schooling and beyond” (Thomas & Collier, 1997, p. 43). Cognitive development is developed through interactions with family and friends in the native language. It is especially important that cognitive development in a child’s native language continue at least through elementary school (Thomas & Collier, 1997).

 Example Lesson Reflecting Krashen's & Colliers Findings 

Stephen Krashen and Virginia Collier findings should be taken into account when developing effective lesson plans for ELLs. Implementations and analyst of Stephen Krashen and Virginia Collier findings will be reflected in the following strategies/activities for a thematic unit for tenth grade involving physical science and English/language arts

Grade Level: 10th	Content Area 1: Physical Science Content Area 2: English/ Language Arts	Theme: States of Matter (Solid, liquid, & Gas)
Summary	Questions to Guide Lesson Planning	Strategy/Activity Ideas
Krashen’s Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis: Adults try to “learn” language skills through memorizing rules from a textbook; where children on the other hand, acquire language skills through natural and meaningful social interactions (ACE, 2014).  It has been proven that acquiring language natural and meaningful social interactions is the most effective (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013).	How can increase academic social interactions among the students to increase language acquisition?	Small group hands on investigation/inquiry lab on the properties of solids, liquids, and gases.
Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis: ELLs benefit greatly when teachers present content in the “second language at the level of comprehension of the students’ first language” (ACE, 2014). An educator can increase students’ language acquisition and understanding by adding additional context and utilizing students’ background knowledge and first language. This can be done, through the use of: visuals, props, facial expressions, and gestures (ACE, 2014)	What visuals and props can I use to increase my students understanding?	Bring in actually examples and pictures of water, liquid, and gas to aid in a vocabulary lesson. Also utilize short video clips of matter changing form.
Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis: The lower a student’s affective filter (or anxiety) the more likely they are to acquire new langue skills. Create an inviting and accepting environment for all, increases language acquisition (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013).	How can I lower my students’ affective filter/ anxiety?	Have the students sit in pairs or small groups so it is easy to do think-pair-shares or other mini-labs. This will allow the students to share their ideas in a low risk environment. Also allow students to demonstrate their understanding through drawing pictures or writing in their native language. Example: Discuss and draw how to change a liquid to a gas?
Collier’s Prism Model – Language Development: Refers to students’ oral and written skills such as: phonology, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse, and paralinguistics. The stronger students’ native language proficiency skills the more proficient they will be in their second language (Thomas & Collier, 1997)	How can I incorporate my students’ native language as a native English speaker?	Have students draw pictures of vocabulary words and label them in both English and their native language.
Collier’s Prism Model – Cognitive Development:  A “natural, subconscious process that occurs developmentally from birth to the end of schooling and beyond” (Thomas & Collier, 1997, p. 43). Cognitive development is developed through interactions with family and friends in the native language.  It is especially important that cognitive development in a child’s native language continue at least through elementary school (Thomas & Collier, 1997).	How can I encourage students and their family members to interact using their native language? How can I incorporate academic content into their interactions?	After a lesson on phase changes, ask my students to go home and explain the process to a family member in their native language. Have the family member sing off on an assignment sheet saying they discussed the phase change process.
Collier’s Prism Model – Academic Development: Skills in the content areas of: language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies for each grade level. Academic comprehension transfers from one language to another. It is most efficient to teach academic content through students’ native language. This way ELLs don’t fall behind their native English speaking peers in the area of academic knowledge (Thomas & Collier, 1997).	What academic tools/ resources are available to enhance academic growth in the students’ native language?	Allow students’ access to internet sites and books in their native langue as they investigate the principles of each state of matter.
Collier’s Prism Model – Social and Cultural Process: The center of the prism and includes individual variables such as: self-esteem, anxiety, home life, community influences, socioeconomic status, and other affective factors (Thomas & Collier, 1997).	How can I learn more about my students so I can better address their needs in my lesson plans?	Have my students fill out a survey about how they learn best. Also ask students to create a collage of important people and activities in their lives.

Applying Krashen's Hypotheses and Collier's Prism Model in the Classroom 

Krashen has several hypotheses to explain second language acquisitions. Krashen’s first hypotheses discusses the difference between how adults and children acquire a new language and why children are often more successful. Children often acquire language skills through natural and meaningful social interactions; verses adults who often try to learn langue skills through memorizing rules out of a textbook. The adult method of memorizing rules frequently results in minimal oral language skills. In the classroom, this means teachers need to foster language acquisition through creating opportunities for students to work together in meaningful, natural, social context (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013). Krashen’s second hypothesis implies ELLs benefit greatly when teachers present content in the “second language at the level of comprehension of the students’ first language” (ACE, 2014). An educator can increase students’ language acquisition and understanding by adding additional context and utilizing students’ background knowledge and first language. This can be done, through the use of: visuals, props, facial expressions, and gestures (ACE, 2014). Krashen’s third hypothesis suggests the lower a student’s affective filter (or anxiety) the more likely they are to acquire new langue skills. Teachers should strive to create an inviting and accepting environment for all (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013).

Virginia Collier is another well established researcher in the area of second-language acquisition. She is well known for her Prism Model. In the model students’ academic development, language development, cognitive development, and social and cultural processes are woven together and foster ELLs overall success (Thomas & Collier, 1997). Without any one of the four components, students will not reach their fullest potential. Collier emphasizes the incorporation of students’ native language in the classroom when possible. The more proficient a student is in their native langue, the more likely they will be successful at acquiring a second language (Thomas & Collier, 1997). The use of the first language also increases ELLs understanding of rigorous grade level content so the ELL does not fall behind their native English speaking peers.

Krashen's Four Stages of Language Acquisition & Example Lessons For Each Stage

According to Dr. Krashen (ACE, 2014), there are four natural stages of language acquisition that a person transitions through before they become proficient in a particular language. The four stages of oral language development are: pre-production, early production, speech emergence, and intermediate fluency (ACE, 2014). There are different strategies and activities that have been proven to be effective for each of the particular stages of acquisition. In the below, each of the four stages will be explained and example lesson plans for 10th grade students in the areas of physical science and English/ language arts will be provided. 

Lesson Plans for Each Stage of Language Development
Grade level: 10th
Content Area 1: Physical Science
Content Area 2: English/ Language Arts
Theme: States of Matter (Solid, liquid, & Gas)

Stage 1: Pre-Production

In the pre-production stage students are often silent as they observe and take in new vocabulary. Students in this stage only understand about 500 words and rely very heavily on physical gestures, facial expressions, and pictures to create meaning. Repetitious use of pictures and Total Physical Responses (TPR) are effective teaching methods and within the students comfort level. The goal of this stage is gain compression of oral vocabulary (ACE, 2014).

Strategy/Activity Appropriate for Stage 1:
The goal of this activity is to obtain oral compression of the three states of matter: solid, liquid, gas and identify examples of each. Each student will get three 8 ½ by 11 computer paper with either the word: sold, liquid, or gas on it. In addition to the vocabulary word there also will be a picture of a solid, liquid, or gas on the respective flashcard. The teacher will hold up a different examples of each state of matter and the students will have to identify if the example is a sold, liquid, or gas by holding up the correct flashcard. Before this activity begins, the teacher should review the definitions a solid, liquid, and gas in the students’ native language.

Stage 2: Early Production
In the early production stage students start to memorize and communicate using single words and short phrases. Students are sill developing their listening compression and still relying on visuals and situational clues to help them understand (ACE, 2014). During this stage effective teaching methods/activities are: asking open ended questions, interactive word walls, sentence and picture matching, modeling, categorizing and chunking information, working with peers, and lots of repetition (Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009). Students will initially respond with short simple words or phrases and the goal is to increase the complexity and length of their communicative responses (ACE, 2014).

Strategy/Activity Appropriate for Stage 2:
The goal of this activity is for students to classify examples of each state of mater through the used of descriptive words. To start, in the students’ native language, students will work in partners to create a list of descriptive words and phrases for each of the three different states of matter (solid, liquid, gas). Sill in partners, the students will work together to find the English translations for each of their words and phrases. At the front of the room the words: solid, liquid, and gas will be written on the board. Each pair of students will take five post-it notes and write one of their descriptive words on each post-it note. The students will then place their post-it notes on the front board under the correct category. The teacher will then review the words on the board with the whole class.

The teacher will then pass out pictures/examples of each state of matter to one partner and a prompt card to the other partner. The prompt card will read, “This is a ______ (solid, liquid, or gas) because __________.” The one partner will hold up one of the example and the other partner will use their descriptive word list and prompt card to identify the type of matter and provide a reason why. Then the partners will switch roles.

Stage 3: Speech Emergence
In the speech emergence stage, students have a vocabulary of about 3,000 words. Students in this stage still frequently make errors, but it is clear what they are trying to communicate (ACE, 2014). During this stage students are able to acquire meaning from texts if they are provided with adequate background knowledge and support. During the speech emergence stage the following activities/ strategies are effective: putting stories in order, schema stories, dual language concept books, sharing work with others, activating prior knowledge activities, comparing pictures, and fostering detailed responses to open ended questions (Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009). The goal is to increase complexity and begin to see fluency in students’ responses and understanding.

Strategy/Activity Appropriate for Stage 3:
The goal of this activity is for students to be able to explain how states of matter change from one form to another. Together as a class they will crate and label a phase change graph and discuss how matter changes form (melting, condensing, adding heat, boiling, etc.). After the graph is labeled the students will draw pictures to remind them what each of the labels on the graph means. In partners the students will then take turns quizzing each other on how each of the different types of matter changes form. For example partner one says: “How does a liquid turn in to a gas?” Partner two will explain: “Heat is added to a solid until it boils to a gas.” The teacher will model the activity before the students start.

Stage 4: Intermediate Fluency
In the intermediate fluency stage students are up to a vocabulary of about 6,000 words and have a high level of comprehension (ACE, 2014). Students are starting to fine tune their oral language skills, read fluently, understand text, and provide detailed written responses. Students are reaching a point where they can focus their energy on expanding their content knowledge and less on basic language skills. Students are reaching a level where they are less dependent on context and situational clues for meaning (Bylund, 2011). During the intermediate fluency stage effective strategies/activities are: teaching self-monitoring skills, metcognitive strategies, self-reflection, KWL charts, modeling cognitive thoughts (“think aloud”), and writing from wordless pictures (Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009).

Strategy/Activity Appropriate for Stage 4:
The goal is for students to increase their understanding of states of matter and phase changes while simultaneously learning how to take split page notes/Cornell Notes (Dpmpjpp, 2010) to increase reading comprehension and fluency. For this lesson the teacher will model each step for the class, but eventually the students will perform this activity on their own. The first step is for the teacher and the class to preview the text. Look at all the headings, pictures, vocabulary words etc. Then as a class come up with a prediction statement as to what the text will be about based on the text preview. Then have each student take a sheet of paper and vertically draw a line down from top to bottom sectioning off about 1/5 of the paper. The smaller area will be for headings and questions and the lager area will be for notes and pictures. One section at a time, have the students read the heading. Then have the students turn the heading into a question that they hope to answer by the end of reading that section. Have the students write this question down in the small section of their split page notes. This process allows the students to set a purpose for reading each section. Read the section together and listen and look for the answer to the predetermined questions (it is helpful to highlight this information). After reading the section, in the large portion of the slip page notes, have the students write the answer the predetermined question using information from the text. Have the students draw or make note of any other important information they read. Then move on to the next section and repeat the same steps. At the end of the reading, have the students write a summary statement about what they learned.

When the students have finished reading and taking notes, have the students review their notes again and add any additional pictures or questions they may have. Then have the students fold their notes along the vertical line and quiz themselves or a partner on the content learn. Students should be encouraged to continue to add information, questions, pictures, and color to their notes as they share with classmates and learn new information.

Why Identify Which Stage of Language Acquisition Students Are In? 

It is important to identify which of the four stages each of your students are in so right accommodations and supports can be implemented. Without identifying and implementing effective teaching strategies students will not understand what is being taught and become frustrated. Secondary education students are already faced with the challenging task of simultaneously learning complex content and learning English in a short amount of time (Thomas & Collier, 1997). These students can’t afford to waste precious time on ineffective teaching methods.   

"Silent Period"

Dr. Krashen explains that the silent period is a span of time when an ELL does not communicate orally in the second language. It is not uncommon for the silent period to last for several months (ACE, 2014). During the silent period student are observing and listening to their classmates and teachers communicate in English. So even though a child may not be orally communicating, they are still growing in their English acquisition (ACE, 2014). It is important to allow the child to speak when s/he is ready and not force them. One way to help ESL students through the silent period is to create an accepting and welcoming environment. Ensure the student, that he/she will be put on the spot and embarrassed in front of the whole class. Create low risk, highly motivating, and natural opportunities for students to respond and interact (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013). For example allow for lots of small group and partner activities. Incorporate hands on actives where students can still participate without being forced to orally communicate (Tomioka, 2007). Also maximize the use of: visuals, props, facial expressions, and gestures to aid in the students’ compression and vocabulary growth (ACE, 2014). A student should eventually exit the silent period once they have the self-confidence and English vocabulary to do so (Latifi, Ketabi, & Mohammadi, 2013).

Transfer of Skills and Language Acquisition

The goal of an educator of students learning a second language is to efficiently and effectively teach the students to communicate proficiently and have a deep understanding of grade level content. An efficient educator should utilize a child’s prior knowledge or skills to learn new content or skills. This concept is called, transfer of learning. “The core idea of transfer is that experience gained in learning to perform one task can help improve learning performance in a related, but different task” (Stone & Taylor, 2009, p.1633). In essence, educators should make use of a child’s knowledge of their first language when teaching them to acquire an additional language. Research from Costley and West (2012) validates the notion; when a student’s prior knowledge or skills are activated, both their understanding and motivation increase.

Sandra and Wetzels (2009) explain when students activate their prior knowledge they are pulling information from their long-term knowledge into their working memory. On average a person’s working memory can only hold about seven items at time. If asked to manipulate information in the working memory, people are limited to holding about three items at a time. If a person wants to increase their overall knowledge and transfer old skills to new ones, they need to make connections from what they are learning and items stored in their long-term memory (where an endless supply of information can be kept). The use of pictures, animations, notes, graphic organizers, problem-based discussion (hypothesizing explanations with others), and mobilization (writing down everything one knows about a topic) are great strategies to activate prior knowledge and hold information. These tools provide students with a way hold and make meaning of information (other than in their working memory) until they can reorganize the new and old information in their long-term memory (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009). Teachers will benefit from utilizing these strategies when simultaneously teaching English language learners language acquisition skills and grade level content.

Example of Lesson Promoting Language Acquisition and Academic Content Simultaneously 
The following lesson plan will demonstrate how to use a combination of mobilization, pictures, and a problem-based discussion to help English language learners simultaneously acquire English skills and build a greater understanding of grade level physical science content. At one particular high school, there are very minimal ESL services in place. There are only two forty-five minute pull-out programs. As a result, accommodations for ESL students fall mostly on the general education and special education teachers present in the classroom. By differentiating and utilizing strategies such as mobilization, pictures, and problem-based discussion, teachers can support both language acquisition and grade level content.

Lesson Plan

Grade Level: 10th Grade	Content Area: Physical Science	Lesson Plan Theme: Simple Machines
Description of Lesson: Write the phrase, “simple machines” on the board. Give the students are few minutes to write down everything they know about simple machines and or draw pictures of examples of simple machines (Students are allowed to write their thoughts in English or their native language). Then one-by-one place the picture of each simple machine (lever, wheel and axel, pulley, wedge, incline plane, and screw) on the board. Again ask the students to write down anything they know about the pictures place on the board (their name, what they are used for, and excreta). Have the students turn to their partner and share their ideas and pictures. The students will be allowed to add to their partner’s ideas to their own papers. As a class let the students share their ideas as the teacher writes the ideas on the board. Ask the students to talk with their partner about how and why each of the different simple machines is used in everyday life. Then as a class discuss the students’ ideas of how and why each simple machine is used. End by showing the students live examples of simple machines or pictures and talking about how and why we use each machine
Transfer-of-Skills Strategy	Description of Strategy	Implementation Steps
Strategy #1 Mobilization and Pictures (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009)	Writing down or drawing pictures of all the things one knows related to a particular topic or a picture.	Write a topic on the board or show a picture and ask the students to write down or draw pictures of all the things they know related to that particular topic. (Allow students to write there ideas in English or their native language). Have the students turn to their partners and share their ideas and pictures. Discuss as a class the pictures and ideas the students came up with.
Strategy #2 Problem-based Discussion (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009)	Hypothesizing possible explanations with classmates.	Pose a question to the class and have the students hypothesize different explanations to the question. Have the students discuss their ideas with their partner. Discuss the students’ ideas as a class.

Recap of Transfer of Skills and Language Acquisition Using: Mobilization, Pictures, & Problem-Based Discussions

People are able to transfer previously learned skills and knowledge to learn new linguistic and academic skills and content (Stone & Taylor, 2009). Mobilization, pictures, and problem-based discussions are all strategies teachers can use to help student activate their prior knowledge and enhance their language skills (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009). In the lesson on simple machines, mobilization and pictures allow the students to express vocabulary and concepts they already know. These strategies better equip the students to store new information in their long-term memory verses their limited working memory (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009).

By allowing the students to initially write in their native language or draw pictures, they are able to write down their ideas even if they don’t know the English translation. The use of pictures also ensures that all the students understood what topics were being discussed. When the students discuss ideas with their peers, the ELL students are provided with an opportunity to obtain new English vocabulary in a low risk setting. In addition, both students are able learn additional concepts about simple machines from each other. The students are then able to feel confident about their contributions in the following class discussion because they already received a validation from their partner. The class discussion also provides additional repetition for the new vocabulary and concepts.

After the mobilization and picture activity, the students then had the vocabulary needed to participate in problem-based discussion. Students are forced to transfer their prior knowledge into possible explanations for why and how simple machines are used. This discussion provides ELL students the opportunity to interact and practice their communication skills in a natural setting. This activity also helps spark all students’ curiosity and increase their motivation to communicate and learn new content (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009).

To recap, strategies such as mobilization, pictures, and problem-based discussions are just a few examples of strategies that should be used regularly to help students effectively and efficiently acquire new language and academic knowledge and skills. These strategies promote utilizing prior knowledge and skills to better equip students to store new information in their long-term memory verses their limited working memory (Sandra and Wetzels, 2009).

Language Instruction in Early Childhood Education

Coleman and Goldenberg (2011), explain the importance of literacy skills such as: phonemic awareness, phonics, oral reading fluency, vocabulary, reading compression, and writing through explicit instruction. Explicit instruction involves proving a clear input, modeling, and lots of practice. Coleman and Goldenberg (2011) also support the notion that it’s beneficial for ELLs to learn basic literacy skills in their native language first before, or in addition to, learning English. Cardenas-Gagan, Carlson, and Pollard-Duradola (2007) explain that some of the components of a student’s first language are able to transfer to the student’s second language. For example, with an increased understanding of vocabulary and conceptual knowledge in the child’s first language, this will help the child better understand the same concept in their second language. Based on this research, it is recommend early language instruction to be in both a child’s primary and secondary language. Based on Cardenas-Gagan, Carlson, and Pollard-Duradola (2007) research, it is also recommend language and literacy instruction to start as early as possible to prevent students from falling behind

BICS v.s. CALP

As an educator is it is important to understand the difference between the two different levels of language proficiency. There are a student’s basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and there is cognitive/ academic language proficiency (CALP). BICS refers to a student’s oral communication where a student has situational and context clues to aid in communication (Bylund, 2011). Where CALP requires students to comprehend and communicate without the use of context or situational clues (Bylund, 2011). Often time students’ are thought to have CALP skills based on their BICS skills. As a result ELLs supports are often removed too early. BICS skills take two to three years to develop where CALP skills take five to seven years (ACE, 2014). Educators need to dig deeper into a student’s proficiency before making decisions related to academic placements and supports.  

Key Concepts

BICS/CALP Distinction	BICS stands for, basic interpersonal communication skills. In essence BICS means a person has the ability to use social everyday language. Where CALP stands for cognitive academic language proficiency, meaning a person has academic language skills. It takes only two to three years for a person to acquire BICS skills, but often five to seven years to learn CALP skills. Since students often pick up social language quickly and can communicate with staff and peers with ease, it is mistakenly assumed ESL supports are not need and the students have the academic literature skills need to be successful on assessments and assignments in English.
Pedagogy for Empowerment	Pedagogy for empowerment refers to the best practice for teaching diverse students. The goal is to create a safe and accepting environment and utilize strategies and materials that build students’ confidence in who they are. For example, teachers need to ensure the literature and pictures they use are free of stereotypes and messages that belittle a student’s view of their selves or goals for the future.  Students should be empowered by the teaching practices and materials used in the classroom.
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis	Stephen Krashen came up with the, acquisition-learning hypothesis. Krashen feels the best way for people to learn a second language is through natural authentic; situations similarly to how they learned their first language. Krashen does not feel teaching students new vocabulary and grammar through methods of drill and practice are effective. As an ELL teacher, this means authentic opportunities for students to practice their new language skills through communicate to achieve a common goal many be most effective because they are less focused on communicating with 100% accuracy, but rather communicating to get a particular message across.
Monitor Hypothesis & 3 Conditions for Use	The monitor hypothesis also comes from Krashen and has to do with a person monitoring and correcting their speech errors either before or after they speak.  Krashen feels when people are so focused on having “correct” grammar they are unable to focus on fluency and getting their message across. As educators it is important to allow time for students to communicate using their new language without worrying about saying things correctly. Krashen feels fluency should come first and the correct grammar will come in time, focus, and knowledge of the language rules.
Natural Order Hypothesis	Krashen’s natural order hypothesis states no matter the language, a person learns particular rules and parts of a new language in a certain order. This order is similar to the order a native speaker learns the different language rules. One would not try to teach a baby complex grammar rules before they acquired particular vocabulary. Likewise teachers should not try to teach students complex grammar rules before they have learned enough vocabulary and simpler grammar rules first.
Comprehensible Input Hypothesis	Krashen says students are more likely to acquire language skills when they are able to understand the message being sent. Krashen also feels the language used to convey a message should be one level higher than the student’s currently understands. In essence, the student uses what they already know and understand about the language and message sent to acquire new language skills. This strategy, Krashen feels will eliminate the need for explicit instruction. Therefore, teachers should communicate using the new language as much as possible creating authentic learning opportunities for students to stretch their language skills. Teachers also need to do frequent checks for understanding.
Affective Filter Hypothesis	Krashen states people have an “affective filter” or barrier that increases when people’s anxiety levels are high, stress is high, self-esteem is low, or motivation in low. When people feel stressed or uncomfortable their ability to acquire new language skills decreases. Teachers want to create a non-threating: environment and opportunities for students to practice their langue skills. This will ensure the student’s affective filters are low so their language acquisition levels are high.
Goldenberg 1st Conclusion	Students can reach higher levels of reading in English, by learning to read in their first language. This means teachers should encourage parents to read with their child in their native language and explain that this will also help their English skills. School should also spend time in school developing reading skills in both the student’s native language and English. The most likely expiation is students are able to transfer their reading skills from one language to the other (Goldenberg, 2008).
Goldenberg 2nd Conclusion	Good instruction is good instruction. ELL students benefit from the same effective instruction that native English speakers benefit from. For example, when teaching non-ELL students, it is helpful to have clear goals, meaningful instruction, and authentic motivating activities; this is also true for ELL students. Similarly ELL students learn to read similarly to native speakers, benefiting form explicit instruction in the areas of: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and writing (Goldenberg, 2008).
Goldenberg 3rd Conclusion	Teachers need to differentiate instruction to meet the ELL linguistic needs. One way teachers can modify instruction to meet their ELL’s needs is by picking text with themes and topics the students are familiar with. Accessing student’s prior knowledge provides the students with increased motivation and comprehension (Goldenberg, 2008). A few other examples of ways to make text accessible to ELLs are to add pictures, repetition, and pre-teaching activities.

Language Acquisition and Baby Talk Synthesis

When babies are born they have the ability to hear all phonetic speech sounds from all the different languages. However, as the baby reaches a year old they lose their ability to differentiate between the different speech sounds from languages not used in their environment. By ten and a half months babies understand a word to be the same word even if the word is spoken in a different dialect or tone. By the time a baby is a year old they understand how the languages spoken in their home environment pronounces and uses the different vowel. This is because babies can identify both sounds and whole words, they can tell if a variation in a sound is the result of a new word or dialect (Association for Psychological, 2008). If a baby is monolingual it only takes them 17 months to differentiate between words that differ by only one sound. If a baby is bilingual it takes them 20 months for them to distinguish between two words with only one different consonant sound as a result of increased learning demands. However, both monolingual and bilingual babies reach the milestone of saying their first word and have the same total vocabulary size at similar ages (Society, 2007).

Language Acquisition and the Impact of Speaking More than One Language

One thing that sets humans apart from other species is our capacity for social interaction. It was originally thought language has evolved a result of genetic adaptation, however recent research states it evolves culturally (University College, 2009). In many counties outside of America it is very common for people to be bilingual (Northwestern University, 2009). Research states it is easier to learn another language at a very young age (University of Rochester, 2006). It has been shown that people who are bilingual have an easier time learning additional languages because they understand the process of learning another language due to their past experiences. People who learn a second language early in life, often become successful langue learners later in life (Northwestern University, 2009). If a person was successful at identifying sounds in their native langue, they are more likely to be successful at distinguishing sounds in an additional langue. Some people are just wired with better audio processing skills than others, allowing them to be successful langue learners (Barcelona Science, 2008). Many fear learning additional languages will put young learners at a disadvantage and put them behind their monolingual peers. However, this is not the case; a bilingual person actually at and advantage because they activate more of their neurological processing landscape than monolingual people. The parts of the human brain available for cognitive processing are made large enough for multiple languages (Dartmouth College, 2006).

Impact of Second Langue Acquisition after Adolescents 

It has been known for a long time that learning a second language becomes harder with age (University College London, 2009). As infants people hold the capabilities to hear and make all kinds of sounds: consonants, vowels, clicks, whistles, etc (University of Arizona, 2005). However, as one ages they learn to ignore particular sounds not used in their current spoken language. New research states an adult brain can be retrained to hear foreign sounds again with the right stimuli (University College London, 2009). Studies have also shown people who know and speak multiple languages may have a later onset of Alzeimer’s disease (Northwestern University, 2009) and have a higher cognitive functioning (Tel Aviv, 2008). This is because using more than one language provides more exercise and simulation to the brain maintaining its cognitive strength. Learning an additional language increases brain flexibility and acceptance for understanding different cultures (Tel Aviv, 2008). One way to predict a person’s ability to pick up an additional langue is by assessing how good they were at distinguishing sounds of their native langue as a kid. Some people have higher audio processing skills than others, making it easier to learn a second language (Barcelona Science, 2008). It is also important to note that people who are dyslexic and struggle to learn one type of language such as English may not be dyslexic in a language such as Chinese and vice versa. This is because they different styles languages and literacy skills pull from different parts of the brain (Hotz, 2008). These are just a few of the many reasons why learning a multiple languages even as an adult can be beneficial.

Comparing and Contrasting the Phonology, Morphology/Syntax, and Cultural Norms of Spanish, Mandarin, and Arabic with English.

For teachers instructing and building relationships with students of different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, it is important to be informed of the different cultural and linguistic barriers encountered by students with a native langue other than English. The more a teachers knows about their students’ native language and culture the better instruction can tailor to meet their students’ needs. Teachers can better anticipate learning obstacles and explicitly teach their students how to overcome these challenges. As part of this assignment, the phonology, morphology/syntax, and cultural norms of Spanish, Mandarin, and Arabic in comparison with English are identified.

Linguistics/ Culture Research Chart

English contrasts with Spanish

Phonology: 1. Double letters often cause problems for Spanish speakers. In Spanish there are only three double-letter combinations cc, ll, and rr. In English there are about 15 double-letter combinations (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 2. The English vowels a, e, and i are pronounced differently in Spanish (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 3. English consonants h, j, r, and y are pronounced differently in Spanish (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 4. The difference in vowel sounds and sentence stress between English and Spanish, make it hard for Spanish speakers to eliminate their accent (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 5. Spanish has only five pure vowel sounds and five diphthongs compared to English’s 12 pure vowel sounds and 8 diphthongs.  The concept of short verse long vowel sounds is confusing to Spanish students. Making it hard for them to hear the different sounds in some words such as ship/sheep, taught/tot, or cart/cat/cut (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 5. Spanish speakers struggle to say the ending consonant sounds correctly. (cart/chard, brish/bridge, or thing/think) (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 6. The /v/ sounds causes many problems for native Spanish speakers (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 7. Words starting with an s native Spanish speakers often add an e in font. (eschool for school). (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c).

Morphology/ Syntax (Grammar): 1. Exclamation and question marks are not used at the beginning of English phrases like they are in Spanish (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 2. Quotation marks are used in English, but not in Spanish. (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 3. Spanish most often has a one-to-one relationship between letters and sounds. English on the other hand, has many different letter combinations that can be pronounced in many different ways (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 4. Spanish speakers struggle to use progressive or future tenses. They often use simple tenses instead. For example, “she has a shower” (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 5. Negatives in English are also a struggle for Spanish speakers. They may say things like, “I no hear him” (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c). 6. Spanish is more flexible than English when it comes to syntax causing Spanish speaks to struggle with word order (Shoebottom, 1996-2013c).

Culture of Mexico issues for teachers/students/parents 1. One to two feet of personal space and frequent touching is considered normal for Mexicans. It may be viewed as rude if one were to back away from someone while talking (Mexico, 2014). 2. It is disrespectful for a child to look an adult in the eyes when they are in trouble (Mexico, 2014). 3. Mexicans are willing deviate from their schedule if it means spending quality time with family and friends. (Mexico, 2014). 4. Women are expected to obedient to their husbands and often have many children. Due to the strong Catholic belief birth control is not practiced. (Mexico, 2014). 5. Whistling is often used to get someone’s attention (Mexico, 2014). 6. Standing with ones hands on their hips communicates anger (Mexico, 2014). 7. Standing with ones hands in their pockets is considered rude (Mexico, 2014). 8. Before a meeting stars there is normally five to fifteen minutes of small talk first (Mexico, 2014). 9. Students often don’t wear shorts to school (Mexico, 2014). 10. The grading scale in Mexico is 1-10 (ten being the highest score and six is still passing) (Mexico, 2014). 11. Extended family is valued the same as the immediate family (Mexico-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette, 2014).

English contrasts with Mandarin (commonly spoken here)

Phonology: 1. Mandarin utilizes different tones or pitches for different: words, tense (past or present), pronouns, (“I” verse “you,”) and positives verses negatives (Tone (Linguistics), n.d.). 2.  Mandarin is written using Chinese characters or logograms (abstract concepts) and pictograms to represent a word or morpheme. Where English uses phonograms (letters) to represent different speech sounds or phonemes (Logogram, n.d.).This makes it hard for many Chinese students to learn to read and spell English. 3. Mandarin has many homophones or characters that are pronounced the same way. English on the other hand, has many homographic heterophonies or same spellings with different pronunciations (Heterography and Homography, n.d.). 4. Many stress and intonation patterns are different in English than they are in Mandarin (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b). 5. Learning all the different vowel sounds and diphthongs in English is hard for many Mandarin speakers (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b). 6. It is hard for many Mandarin speakers to distinguish between l and r and between l and n. 7. Many Mandarin speakers drop the last consonant sound. Instead they will add an extra vowel to the end (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b).

Morphology/Syntax (Grammar) 1. Auxiliaries and verb inflections: is/are/were, eat/eats/ate/eaten are unfamiliar to Mandarin speakers. In Mandarin they use word order, adverbials or shared understanding of context to convey tenses and verb forms (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b).   2. Articles in English are very common and in Mandarin they are not used (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b). 3. In English to ask a question the word order changes where in Mandarin intonation is used (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b). 4. Phrasal verbs such as: “take on,” “give in,” or “look up to” are nonexistent in Mandarin making them hard for native mandarin speakers to comprehend (Shoebottom, 1996-2013b).

Culture of China issues for teachers/students/parents 1. Communication among people from China often involves reading between the lines. For their communication is often indirect. The word “no” is often avoided (China, 2014).   2. When communicating there is often little to no touching (unless talking with close family and friends) (China, 2014).   3. Women who are close friends often link arms or hold hands when walking (China, 2014).   4. It is considered inappropriate for women to bounce their legs when sitting, snap their fingers, or whistle (China, 2014). 4. Pointing ones index finger is considered undesirable; it is better to use an open hand (China, 2014). 5. It common to spit in public (China, 2014).   6. It is considered inappropriate to use ones feet to move or pick something up (China, 2014). 7. Women are to avoid low necklines, high heels, and tight fitting or sleeveless shirts (China, 2014). 8. Being on time to a meeting is highly valued (China, 2014). 9. It is considered proper educate to address the oldest person in the room(China, 2014). 10. It is normal for there to be moments of silence during a conversation. It is considered rude to interrupt or talk over someone (China, 2014).   11. In school the most common teaching style is lecture. Presentations, essays, and group projects are uncommon (China, 2014). 12. To stand while a teacher is talking is considered rude (China, 2014). 13. Chinese are considered a collective selective society (China-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette, 2014). 14. Causing someone public embarrassment is considered undesirable behavior. As a result if one were to disagree with someone they will not publicly disagree, but rather remain silent (China-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette, 2014). 15. Chinese are very sensitive and aware of non-verbal communication (China-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette, 2014).

English contrasts with Iraqi (refugees) speaking Arabic.

Phonology: 1. Arabic script does not have letters or symbols for: /t/,/d/,/h/,/g/, /z/, and /d/ (Arabic language, n.d.). 2. Arabic only has 15 symbols for 28 consonants (English has 24). To make the other 13 consonants dots were placed around the letters (Arabic language, n.d.). 3. Arabic was originally made up of all consonants, now a red dot system is used to represent vowels. If a vowel is short vowel, a smaller letter is placed above a consonant.  Then black lines above letters are used to identify consonants (Arabic language, n.d.). 4. Arabic bowels and consonants can both be considered short or long. Long consonants are held twice as long and often written in doubled (bb,dd, ect.) (Arabic language, n.d.). 5. Arabic’s two kinds of syllables are open syllables (CV or CVV) or closed syllables (CVC, CVVC, or CVCC). (Arabic language, n.d.). 6. Arabic has eight vowels/diphthongs where English has 22. Making it hard for Arabic students to hear and saying differences vowel sounds (bad verses bed) (Shoebottom,1996-2013a). 7. Short vowels are not seen in Arabic writing because they are not seen as important (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a). 8. Arabic students will struggle to say th sound. They will also swap the /b/ sound for a /p/ and /f/ for /v/(Shoebottom,1996-2013a). 9. Unlike the Arabic language English’s stress patterns are irregular making it hard for native Arabic students to learn (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a).

Morphology/Syntax (Grammar) 1. The grammatical cases used in Arabic for nouns are: nominative, accusative, and genitive. Arabic recognizes the following three grammatical numbers: singular, dual, and plural. Arabic depicts nouns as either masculine or feminine and identifies nouns as either indefinite, definite, or constructs (Arabic language, n.d.). 2. Adjectives are different based on the number, gender, and state of the noun being discussed (Arabic language, n.d.). 3. Pronouns in Arabic are different based on person, number, and gender. If the pronoun is enclitic it is attached to the end of the verb or preposition (Arabic language, n.d.). 4. Nouns, verbs, and pronouns in Arabic should agree with each other. It is also noted, that all non-human plural nouns are to be considered as feminine singular (Arabic language, n.d.). 5. Arabic demonstrates a nonconcatenative where the “root-and-pattern” morphology (usually three consonants) are rearranged and combine/mixed in with other letters to form different forms of a word. There is no such thing as deriving words by simply adding prefixes or suffixes (Arabic language, n.d.). 6. Many words in Arabic are formed from three consonant roots combine with fixed vowel patterns. The lack of patterns in the English langue is often hard for Arabic students (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a). 7. Upper and lower case characters are not used in Arabic (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a). 8. There are many more strict punctuation rules in English then there are in Arabic (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a).  9. The lack of the verb “to be” in present tense in Arabic and no auxiliary do causes grammatical problems for Arabic students surrounding this verb. Students will say, “She good teacher” instead of “She is a good teacher” (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a). 10. Arabic student struggle with word order because in Arabic adjectives follow the noun (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a). 11. Arabic students often add unneeded pronouns in relative clauses because they are utilized in Arabic. (Shoebottom, 1996-2013a).

Culture of Iraq issues for teachers/students/parents 1. Greeting another person with a kisses on the cheek is common (if the same sex) (Iraq, 2014). 2. Indirect communication is common. Being blunt can be considered rude (Iraq, 2014). 3. Personal space between a men and women is larger than between people of the same sex. It is common for people to touch each other when communicating only if they are the same sex (Iraq, 2014). 4. It can be considered harassment or filtering for a man to look a woman in the eyes (Iraq, 2014). 5. Being within a half hour late is acceptable. Being on time is not a priority (Iraq, 2014). 6. Pointing at someone is considered rude. One should use their open hand. If both hands are used this is interpreted as anger (Iraq, 2014). 7. Putting ones right hand on their chest is a way of saying “no thank you” (Iraq, 2014). 8. It is unacceptable to sit cross-legged with one’s foot or shoe pointing at someone’s face (Iraq, 2014). 9. Men only wear shorts when exercising. Women only wear sleeved shirts for being conservative is valued (Iraq, 2014). 10. It is considered proper for the guest to end a meeting. (This way it does not seem like host wanting the guest to leave) (Iraq, 2014). 11. Bargaining is very common (Iraq, 2014). 12. A failing grade is anything below a 50 (out of 100) (Iraq, 2014). 13. It is common from men to ask for help (Iraq, 2014). 14. Showing emotions is frowned upon (Iraq-Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette, 2014).

Through this assignment differences in the phonology, morphology/syntax, and cultural norms of Spanish, Mandarin, and Arabic in comparison with English were identified.  By identifying the differences between Spanish, Mandarin, and Arabic and English instruction can be customized to meet individual student needs. Teachers can better support students and help eliminate frustration, by explicitly teacher their students how to overcome the anticipated challenges.

Global Role of English and its Impact 

According to Waller (2009), two billion people are learning English worldwide, making it the world’s second most popular language. English is also the fastest-spreading language, with one in every four people being able to speak English (Neeley, 2012). Neeley (2012), states English is the global language of business around the world. If a company fails to speak English they put themselves at risk for minimal international economic growth. With a common language, people can communicate directly without needing a middle man. By eliminating a middle man (interpreter), there is a decrease misunderstandings and increase in sound decision making. It is easier to problem solve and collaborate with others when all people speak the same language. Many people feel learning English opens more educational and employment doors which will lead them to success and better lives for themselves and their families (Ruijuan, Ruiting, & Van, 2014). Mandarin is also a smart language to learn, because the Chinese economy is rapidly increasing, but Neeley (2012), says many people around the world already know English, and for most of the world, it is easier to learn and understand “broken English” than it is to learn “broken Mandarin” or any other language spoken by a large number of people.

Outside of the United States it is common for people to be bilingual (Northwestern University, 2009). In addition, in the United States the number of English Language Learners entering the school system is rapidly increasing. As a result, the demand for bilingual teachers and teacher’s familiar with effective strategies to teach students a second language is increasing. Educators act as the link between the langue and culture of the school system and the language and culture of each family. Teachers have to learn to foster and balance the language and cultural accusation of both a native language and English. Teachers need to be familiar with the differences in the languages being taught so they can better, predict areas of struggle, differentiate instruction, and assess content and language acquisition. Educators need also to be educated and familiar with the impact of: social influences, societal influence, personality, motivation, anxiety, age, past experiences on language acquisition so instruction can better meet the students’ needs.

Being bilingual has many educational, employment, and social benefits. New research has confirmed that the human brain is capable of learning multiple languages at different ages or simultaneously (Dartmouth College, 2006). With the wide spread of English across the world and becoming the language of business, the pressure to learn English has increased (Neeley, 2012). If a person has acquired literature skills in their native langue, it helps them acquire English skills faster because they already have the basic understanding of reading and writing skills (University of Haifa, 2007). The similarities and differences between a child’s native language and the English language play a part in their ability to produce and distinguish between different English sounds. English can be a struggle for many English language learners; because it is an irregular language with little connection between the letters and the sounds they make (University of Haifa, 2007). The ability to distinguish between and learn another language becomes harder with age. This is why it is beneficial for students to be taught English at a young age, which is why there is such a big push to make English apart of the school system in many countries such as China (Walker, 2009).

**Note: See full citations/references on the "Reference" page.